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Measuring the size of PVC pipe involves determining both the diameter and the wall thickness, as both are critical for identifying the correct pipe for your needs. To measure the diameter, use a measuring tape or ruler and measure across the center of the pipe's end from one inner edge directly across to the opposite inner edge to get the internal diameter (ID). For the external diameter (ED), measure from the outer edge to the opposite outer edge. It's important to note PVC pipes are often categorized by their nominal size, which may not match the actual dimensions exactly due to the thickness of the pipe walls. Thus, a pipe labeled "2 inches," for example, might not measure exactly 2 inches externally. To measure wall thickness, use a caliper tool. Slide the caliper around the pipe wall and read the measurement. Knowing both the diameter (especially the ID for flow and fitting purposes) and the wall thickness is essential for getting the right pipe for the pressure and volume requirements of your project.
α-Amino acids are organic molecules that possess both an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) as their fundamental structure, typically linked to the same carbon atom, known as the α-carbon. This carbon is also bonded to a hydrogen atom and a variable side chain (R group) which determines the specific properties and identity of the amino acid. There are 20 standard α-amino acids encoded by the universal genetic code, each serving as building blocks for proteins. They play critical roles in biological processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis. Their structure allows them to link together through peptide bonds, forming polypeptides and proteins. The unique sequence and composition of amino acids in a protein determine its shape, structure, and function, highlighting the essential role of α-amino acids in life sciences.
Oxygen oxidizes ferrous iron (Fe2+) of free heme due to its high affinity for the heme group, a critical component of hemoproteins like hemoglobin. In hemoglobin, the ferrous ion is coordinated in a porphyrin ring, enabling it to reversibly bind oxygen. When oxygen binds to the Fe2+ in the heme, it causes a temporary oxidation of the iron to a ferric state (Fe3+), creating a superoxo intermediate. This process is reversible in vivo, ensuring efficient oxygen transport. However, if heme is free and not bound within proteins like hemoglobin, the oxidation can become irreversible, leading to the loss of function of the heme group and the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), potentially causing oxidative stress and damage to cells and tissues.
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