Titanium dioxide. also known as TiO2. has a crystal structure that combines both ionic and covalent bonds. Within the structure. each titanium atom is surrounded by six oxygen atoms while each oxygen atom is surrounded by three titanium atoms. This arrangement forms a tetragonal lattice where the titanium atoms sit at the center of the octahedron which is formed by the oxygen atoms. Due to its transition metal nature. titanium can form various cations positively charged ions. with four being present in titanium dioxide. On the other hand. oxygen is more electronegative and carries a -2 charge. As a result. each titanium cation bonds to two oxygen anions. Even though these bonds exhibit some similarities. they also have distinct characteristics which contribute to the high melting point and hardness typically associated with covalent bonds. This can be explained by the small size and high charge of the Ti4 ion which creates an extensive electric field. causing distortion in the O2- electron cloud. This distortion results in shared electrons between titanium and oxygen. giving the bond some covalent properties. Additionally. there are two types of octahedra found in the crystal structure of titanium dioxide; one centered on titanium and

Polyurethane and polypropylene are distinct substances, each with unique characteristics and applications. Polyurethane is a versatile polymer that can be flexible or rigid, making it ideal for a wide range of products like foams, elastomers, and coatings. It is known for its durability and resistance to abrasion and impact. On the other hand, polypropylene is a type of plastic belonging to the polyolefin group, famous for its stiffness, resistance to chemicals, and ability to act as a barrier against moisture. It is commonly used in packaging, textiles, automotive components, and various household items. While both are polymers, their differing properties mean they are suited to different uses.

Installing PVC baseboard in a bathroom involves several steps to ensure durability and a clean look. Firstly, measure the bathroom perimeter to determine the total length of baseboard required. Secondly, cut your PVC baseboard pieces to size using a saw, ensuring cuts are straight for a seamless fit. It’s advisable to dry fit pieces before installation. Next, clean the wall surface to remove dust and debris for better adhesion. Apply a bead of waterproof adhesive along the back of each baseboard piece. Press the baseboard firmly against the wall, starting from one corner and working your way around. For corners, miter cuts are needed for a precise fit. Once all pieces are adhered, secure them with finishing nails if necessary. Caulk the top edge where the baseboard meets the wall to prevent water infiltration and give a finished look. Let the adhesive and caulk dry according to the manufacturer's instructions before exposing to moisture. Choosing PVC for bathroom baseboards is wise due to its resistance to moisture and mold, ensuring longevity in humid environments.